Contemporary Physicists and God’s Existence (part 1 of 3): The Eternalness of Matter
Description: An Islamic Critical Evaluation of the Ideas of Some Contemporary Physicists: Part One: The eternalness of the universe and the decay of matter, and the implications of the Big Bang.
By Dr. Jaafar Sheikh Idris
Whether God exists or not is not as such, part of the
subject matter of any empirical science, natural or social. But the facts or
what are sometimes assumed to be the facts of the natural sciences, especially
physics and biology, are often interpreted to support one view or the other. This
is not therefore a paper about physics, but about the relationship between
physics and the question of the existence of God. More specifically, it is
mainly an Islamic rational critique of the ways modern atheists attempts to
meet the challenge posed by the Big Bang theory. It does not deal with
positive proofs for the existence of the Creator; it only proves the invalidity
of the arguments used to buttress atheism.
One of the main arguments invoked in support of some
form or other of atheism has always been the claim that the world, or some part
of it, is eternal and, as such, needs no creator. Thus, some Greek thinkers
believed that the heavenly bodies, especially the sun, were eternal. The main
argument of one of them, Galen, was, according to Al-Ghazali, that it has had the
same size for continued for eons and eons,a fact which shows that it is not
perishable, for if it were, it would have shown signs of decay, which it doesn’t.
Al-Ghazali says that this is not a good argument because:
First...we do
not grant him that a thing cannot perish except by decaying; decaying is only
one way of perishing; but it is not improbable for something to perish suddenly
while it is in its complete form. Second, even if we grant him that there is
no perishing without decay, whence does he know that it does not suffer any
decay? His reference to observation posts is not acceptable, because their quantities
[the quantities known by them] are known only approximately. So if the sun,
which is said to be a hundred and seventy times or more the size of the earth[1],
were to diminish by amounts the size of mountains, that would not be apparent
to the senses. So it might be decaying, and might have decreased by amounts
the size of mountains or more, but the senses cannot perceive this ...”
(Al-Ghazali, 126)
Al-Ghazali’s guess that the size of the sun might be
diminishing was, as we can now see, a rare prescience of what science would
prove. Scientists now tell us that the sun does indeed decay, but much more
than he thought, and that it will ultimately perish.
The amount of
energy released by the sun is such that the mass of the sun is decreasing at
the rate of 4.3 billion kilograms per second. Yet this is such a small
fraction of the sun’s mass that the change is hardly noticeable…
Our sun is
believed to be about 4.5 billion years old, and will probably continue its
present activity for another 4.5 billion years. (Wheeler, 596)
If the heavenly bodies are not eternal, what is it then
that is eternal, the substances from which those bodies are made? But
physicists have discovered that these are made of molecules. Is it then the
molecules that are eternal? No, because these are made up of atoms. What
about the atoms? It was once believed that they were indivisible, and were, as
such, the immutable matter from which all kinds of transient forms of material
things are made. This seemed, at last, to be the solid foundation on which to
erect modern atheism.
Science continued to advance however, and contented in
its advancement to embarrass the atheists. It was soon discovered that atoms
were not the immutable solid ultimate eternal constituents of matter that they
were believed to be for a time. Like everything else, they are also divisible;
they are constituted of subatomic particles, which are in turn divisible in yet
smaller constituents. Is there an end to this divisibility? No one knows; but
even if there was, that would not be of any help to the atheists, for science
has not only shown atoms and their constituents to be divisible, it has
obliterated the division between matter and energy. Thus, every piece of
matter, however small, is not only theoretically but also practically
changeable into energy, and vice versa. The end result is that there is no
longer any actual existent to which one can point and say with any assurance: this
has always been like as it is now, and will continue forever to be.
That discovery should by itself have sufficed to dash
any hope of anchoring atheism on the eternity of matter. If it did not, the
Big Bang theory certainly did. It was this theory which dealt the final death
blow to the eternity of any part of the universe. Why?
Cosmologists
believe that the big bang represents not just the appearance of matter and
energy in a preexisting void, but the creation of space and time too. The
universe was not created in space and time; space and time are part of the
created universe. (Davies, 123)
The biggest
misunderstanding about the big bang is that it began as a lump of matter
somewhere in the void of space. It was not just matter that was created during
the big bang. It was space and time that were created. So in the sense that
time has a beginning, space also has a beginning.” (Boslouh, 46.)
In the
beginning there was nothing, neither time nor space, neither stars nor planets,
neither rocks nor plants, neither animals nor human beings. Everything came
out of the void. (Fritzch, 3)
The question of the existence or non-existence of God is
not, as we said, the concern of any empirical science. But scientists are
human beings. They cannot help thinking about the non-scientific yet vital
implications of their sciences. They cannot even help having feelings towards
those implications.
Jasrow says about Einstein:
He was
disturbed by the idea of a universe that blows up, because it implied that the
world had a beginning. In a letter to De Sitter, Einstein wrote, “This
circumstance of an expanding universe irritates me.” ... This is curiously
emotional language for a discussion of some mathematical formulas. I suppose
that the idea of a beginning in time annoyed Einstein because of its theological
implications. (Jasrow, 29.)
Gastro quotes similar reactions by other scientists,
like Eddington who says that “the notion of a beginning is repugnant” to him
(122), and attributes this emotional reaction to the fact that they do not “bear
the thought of a natural phenomenon which cannot be explained”[2]
and comments on such reactions of scientists by saying that they provide:
... an
interesting demonstration of the response of the scientific mind - supposedly a
very objective mind - when evidence uncovered by science itself leads to
conflict with the articles of faith in our profession. It turns out that the
scientist behaves the way the rest of us do when our beliefs are in conflict
with the evidence. We become irritated, we pretend the conflict does not
exist, or we paper it over with meaningless phrases. (Jasrow, 15-16.)
Footnotes:
[1] We now know
that it is definitely more. The mass of the sun is 333, 000 times that of the
earth, and its radius is 109 times the earth’s radius.
[2] Gastro would
have been more accurate if he said, “a phenomenon that cannot be naturally explained.”,
since Divine creation is an explanation, and the only one in such cases.
Contemporary Physicists and God’s Existence (part 2 of 3): A Series of Causes
Description: An Islamic Critical Evaluation of the Ideas of Some Contemporary Physicists. Part two: Various hypotheses of what could stand as causes of beings or events.
If matter, time and space all had a beginning, the
question that naturally comes to mind is: How did they come to be? The Quran
tells us that if a person does not believe in God, then he cannot explain the
coming into being of anything except by one of three untenable explanations:
a. either he says that it was created by
nothing, i.e. that it just appeared out of nothing?
b. Or that it created itself,
c. Or that it was created by something that is
itself created.
Addressing the atheists the Quran says:
“Were they created by nothing? Or were they themselves the
creators (of themselves)? Or did they create heaven and earth? Nay, but they
are not sure.” (Quran 52:35-36)
The Quran is not saying that the Arabs whom it addressed
actually believed that things were created by nothing, or that they created
themselves. They certainly did not claim that they were the creators of the
heavens and earth; no sane person would. The Quran then, is only making clear
to the atheists the absurdity of their position.
After a careful study of some of the arguments of many
Western atheistic philosophers and scientists, I have found that they do indeed
fall into these three untenable categories. Why untenable?
Was it created out of nothing?
Suppose that you told someone that there was nothing,
nothing at all in a certain region, and then lo! a duck appeared alive and
kicking. Why wouldn’t he believe you however much you assure him that that was
indeed the case? Not only because he knows that ducks don’t come into being in
that way, as some might suppose, but because believing this violates an
essential principle of his rationality. Thus his attitude would be the same
even if the thing that he was told to have come from nothing was something that
he never heard of before. It is because we believe that nothing comes out of
nothing, that we keep looking for causes by which we explain the occurrence of
events in the natural, social or psychological world. It is because of this
rational principle that science was possible. Without it, not only our science,
but our very rationality will be in jeopardy. Moreover, the idea of causation
is essential even to the very identity of things, as it was observed by the
Muslim philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes):
It is
self-evident that things have identities, and they have qualities in virtue of
which every existent has its actions, and in virtue of which things have
different identities, names and definitions. If it were not the case that
every individual thing had an action peculiar to, it would not have had a
nature that is peculiar to it; and if it did not have a special nature, it
would not have had a special name or definition. (Tahafut Attahafut, 782-3)
Did it create itself?
The absurdity of the idea of something creating itself
is even clearer. For something to create, it must be already existing; but for
it to be created, it must be nonexistent. The idea of something creating
itself is thus self-contradictory.
Was it created by something that is itself created?
Can the cause of a temporal thing be itself temporal? Yes,
if we are talking about immediate, incomplete causes like eating and
nourishment, water and germination, fire and burning, etc. But these causes
are incomplete causes. First, because none of them is by itself sufficient to
produce the effect we attribute to it; every such temporal cause depends for
its efficacy on a host of other positive and negative conditions. Second,
because being temporal, they need to be caused, and cannot therefore be the
ultimate causes of the coming into being of anything. Suppose the following to
be a series of temporal effects and causes: C1, C2, C3, C4… Cn, such that C1 is
caused by C2, C2 by C3, and so on. Such temporal causes are real causes, and
useful ones, especially for practical purposes and for incomplete explanations;
but if we are looking for the ultimate cause of the coming into being of, say,
C1, then C2 is certainly not that cause, since it is itself caused by C3. The
same can be said about C3, and so on. So even if we have an infinite series of
such temporal causes, still that will not give us an ultimate explanation of
the coming into being of C1. Let us put this in other words: when does C1 come
into being? Only after C2 has come into being. When does C2 come into being? Only
after C3 has come into being, and so on until Cn. Therefore C1 will not come
into being until Cn has come into being. The same problem will persist even if
we go further than Cn, even if we go to infinity. This means that if C1
depended for its coming into being on such temporal causes, it would never have
come to exist. There would be no series of actual causes, but only a series of
non-existents, as Ibn Taymiyyah[1] explained.
The fact, however, is that there are existents around us; therefore, their
ultimate cause must be something other than temporal causes; it must be an
eternal, and therefore, uncaused cause.
When someone, whether scientist or nonscientist, insists
on his erroneous beliefs in the face of all the evidence, there can be no way
for him to support those beliefs except by resorting to dubious arguments,
because no falsehood can be supported by a valid argument. This has been the
case with all atheistic scientists and philosophers who believe in the Big Bang
theory.
Some claimed unabashedly that the original matter of the
universe came out of nothing. Thus Fred Hoyle, who advocated the steady state
theory, which was for sometime considered to be a credible rival to the big
bang theory, but which, like its rival, necessitates the coming into being of
new matter-- used to say[2]:
The most
obvious question to ask about continuous creation is this: Where does the
created material come from? It does not come from anywhere. Material simply
appears - it is created. At one time the various atoms composing the material
do not exist, and at a later time they do. This may seem a very strange idea
and I agree that it is, but in science it does not matter how strange an idea
may seem so long as it works – that is to say, since the idea can be expressed
in a precise form and so long as its consequences are in agreement with
observation. (Hoyle, 112)
When Hoyle said this, there was an uproar against him. He
was accused of violating a main principle of science, namely that nothing comes
out of nothing, and was thus ‘opening the flood gates of religion’ as one
philosopher of science put it. Thus Mario Bunge said about it:
[T]his theory
involves the hypothesis of the continuous creation of matter ex nihilo. And this
is not precisely what is usually meant by respecting scientific determinism
even in its widest sense, for the concept of emergence out of nothing is
characteristically theological or magical even if clothed in mathematical form.
(Bunge)
That the hypothesis of creation ex nihilo is not a
scientific one, is true, but the claim that it is characteristically theological
is wide off the mark. Theistic religions do not say that things come out of
absolute nothing because that contradicts the basic religious claim that they
are created by God. All that many religious people say is that God creates
things out of nothing, and there is the whole difference in the world between
the two notions.
If creation out of nothing was earlier considered by
atheists to be an unscientific and theological principle, it is now claimed by some
to have a scientific status and is used to discredit religion.
For the first
time a unified description of all creation could be within our grasp. No
scientific problem is more fundamental or more daunting than the puzzle of how
the universe came into being. Could this have happened without any
supernatural input? Quantum mechanics seems to provide a loophole in the
age-old assumption that ‘you can’t get something for nothing’. Physicists are
now talking about ‘the self creating universe’: a cosmos that erupts into
existence spontaneously, much as a sub nuclear particle pops out of nowhere in certain
high energy processes. The question of whether the details of this theory are
right or wrong is not important. What matters is that it is now possible to
conceive of a scientific explanation of all creation. (Jastrow, viii)
What kind of explanation is this? Do you really even
start to explain anything by saying that it pops out of nowhere? Do scientists
really believe that the sub nuclear particle referred to pops out of nowhere,
in the sense that it really comes out of nothing, and has no relation
whatsoever to anything that precedes it? Commenting on what Davies claimed,
one scientist had this to say: “This, in any case, is an event that occurs in
space and time, within a domain bathed in matter and radiation. ‘Nothing’ is
nowhere to be seen in this situation.“[3]
This same fallacious idea is repeated in a later book by
another atheistic scientist, Taylor:
As such,
there is a non-zero probability of, say, a particle such as an electron
appearing out of the vacuum. In fact a vacuum is full of possibilities, one of
which is the appearance of the Universe itself. It had been created from
nothing, as it were. (Taylor, 22)
What kind of vacuum is Taylor talking about? If he is
using the word in its technical scientific sense, then he can indeed speak of
its being full of possibilities, or of an electron appearing out of it, because
this vacuum is in fact a non-empty region. This surely, however, is not the
nothingness that is referred to by the big bang theory. There is therefore not
even an analogy between the appearance of a particle in a vacuum and the
appearance of a Universe out of absolute nothing.
Footnotes:
[1] Taqi al-Din
Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyah (1263 - 1328), an Islamic scholar born in Harran, now
modern day Syria.
[2] Later on he
changed his mind, not only about this, but about the whole theory.
[3] This is what
my friend, Professor Mahjoob Obeid, the famous Sudanese physicist wrote to
me in a personal communication.
Contemporary Physicists and God’s Existence (part 3 of 3): Room for God
Description: An Islamic Critical Evaluation of the Ideas of Some Contemporary Physicists: Part three: The only conclusion to the series of causes is that there be one ultimate and external cause which led to all others.
The idea that
something is not created by anything, that
it comes out of nothing, is very different from the idea that it creates
itself.
It is strange therefore to find some scientists speaking about them as
if they
are one and the same thing. It is not only Davies who confused these
two
notions as we can see in the quotation just cited, but others also.
Taylor tells us that electrons can create themselves out of nothing in
the manner Baron
Munchausen saved himself from sinking into a bog by pulling himself up
by his
bootstraps.
It is as if
these particles special particles are able to pull themselves up by their own
bootstraps (which in their case are the forces between them) to create
themselves from nothing as Baron Munchausen saves himself without visible means
of support...This bootstrapping has been proposed as a scientifically
respectable scenario for creating a highly specialized Universe from nothing. (Taylor, 46)
Is it science or science fiction that we are being told here?
Taylor knows and says that Munchausen’s is only a story; what he claimed to
have done is in fact something that is physically impossible to do. In spite
of this, Taylor wants to explain by his idea something that is not only real,
but is of the utmost importance, and thus ends up saying something that is more
absurd than Munchausen’s fictitious story of saving himself by pulling up his
bootstrap. At least Munchausen was talking about things that were already in
existence. But Taylor’s special particles act even before they are created! They
“pull themselves by their own bootstraps... to create themselves from nothing.”!
False Gods
The third alternative to attributing the creation of
things to the true God, is to attribute them to false gods. Thus many atheists
try to attribute the creation of temporal things to other things which are
themselves temporal (as we said before). Davies says:
The idea of a
physical system containing an explanation of itself might seem paradoxical to the
layman but it is an idea that has some precedence in physics. While one may
concede, (ignoring quantum effects) that every event is contingent, and depends
for its explanation on some other event, it need not follow that this series
either continues endlessly, or ends in God. It may be closed into a loop. For
example, four events, or objects, or systems, E1, E2, E3, E4, may have the
following dependence on each other: (Davies, 47)
But this is a clear example of a very vicious circle. Take
any one of these supposed events or objects or systems. Let it be E1, and ask
how it came about . The answer is: it was caused by E4, which preceded it; but
what is the cause of E4? It is E3; and the cause of E3 is E2, and of E2 is E1.
So the cause of E4 is E1 because it is the cause of its causes. Therefore E4
is the cause of E1 and E1 is the cause of E4 which means that each one of them
precedes and is preceded by the other. Does that make any sense? If these
events, etc. are actual existents, then their coming into being could not have
been caused by them the way Davies supposes it to be. Their ultimate cause
must lie outside this vicious circle.
And the philosopher Passmore advises us to:
Compare the following:
(1) every event has a cause;
(2) to know that an event has happened one must
know how it came about.
The first
simply tells us that if we are interested in the cause of an event, there will
always be such a cause for us to discover. But it leaves us free to start and
stop at any point we choose in the search for causes; we can, if we want to, go
on to look for the cause of the cause and so on ad infinitum , but we need not
do so; if we have found a cause, we have found a cause, whatever its cause may
be. The second assertion, however, would never allow us to assert that we know
that an event has happened ... For if we cannot know that an event has taken
place unless we know the event that is its cause, then equally we cannot know
that the cause-event has taken place unless we know its cause, and so on ad
infinitum. In short, if the theory is to fulfill its promise, the series must
stop somewhere, and yet the theory is such that the series cannot stop anywhere
– unless, that is, a claim of privilege is sustained for a certain kind of
event, e.g. the creation of the Universe. (Pasture, 29)
If you think about it, there is no real difference
between these two series as Ibn Taymiyyah clearly explained a long time ago (Ibn
Taymiyyah, 436-83). One can put the first series like this: for an event to
happen, its cause must happen. Now if the cause is itself caused, then the
event will not happen unless its cause event happens, and so on, ad infinitum.
We will not therefore have a series of events that actually happened, but a
series of no events. And because we know that there are events, we conclude
that their real ultimate cause could not have been any temporal thing or series
of temporal things whether finite or infinite. The ultimate cause must be of a
nature that is different from that of temporal things; it must be eternal. Why
do I say ‘ultimate’? Because, as I said earlier, events can be viewed as real
causes of other events, so long as we acknowledge them to be the incomplete and
dependent causes they are, and as such not the causes that explain the coming
into being of something in any absolute sense, which is to say that they cannot
take the place of God.
What is the relevance of this talk about chains after
all? There might have been some excuse for it before the advent of the Big
Bang, but it should have been clear to Davies in particular that there is no
place for it at all in the world-view of a person who believes that the
universe had an absolute beginning.
The fact that every thing around us is temporal and that
it could not have been created except by an eternal Creator has been known to
human beings since the dawn of their creation, and it is still the belief of
the overwhelming majority of people all over the world.[1]
It would, therefore, be a mistake to get from this paper the impression that
it hinges the existence of God upon the truth of the Big Bang theory. That
certainly is not my belief; neither was it the purpose of this paper. The main
thrust of the paper has rather been that if an atheist believes in the big bang
theory, then he cannot avoid admitting that the Universe was created by God. This,
in fact, is what some scientists frankly admitted, and what others hesitantly
intimated to.
There is no
ground for supposing that matter and energy existed before and was suddenly galvanized
into action. For what could distinguish that moment from all other moments in
eternity? ... It is simpler to postulate creation ex nihilo, Divine will
constituting nature from nothingness. (Jastro,122)
As to the
first cause of the universe in the context of expansion, that is left to the
reader to insert, but our picture is incomplete without Him. (Jasrow,122)
This means
that the initial state of the universe must have been very carefully chosen
indeed if the hot big bang model was correct right back to the beginning of
time. It would be very difficult to explain why the universe should have begun
in just this way except as the act of a God who intended to create beings like
us. (Hawking,127)
References
Al Ghazali, Abu Hamid, Tahafut al Falasifa,
edited by Sulayman Dunya, Dar al Ma'arif, Cairo, 1374 (1955)
Berman, David, A History of Atheism in Britain, London and New York, Routledge, 1990.
Boslough, John, Stephen Hawking's Universe: an
Introduction to the most remarkable Scientist of our Time, Avon Books, New York, 1985.
Bunge, Mario, Causality: The Place of the Causal
Principle in Modern Science, The world publication Co. New York, 1963
Carter, Stephen L. The Culture of Disbelief: How
American Law and Politics Trivialize Religious Devotion. Basic Books,
Harper Collins, 1993.
Concise Science Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984
Davies, Paul, (1) The Cosmic Blueprint: New
Discoveries in Nature's Creative Ability to Order the Universe, Simon &
Schuster Inc, London, 1989. (2) God & The New Physics, The
Touchstone Book, New York, 1983.
Fritzsch, Harald, The Creation of Matter: The
Universe From Beginning to End, Basic Books Inc Publishers, New York, 1984.
Ibn Rushd, al Qadi Abu al Walid Muhammad Ibn Rush, Tahafut
at-Tahafut, edited by Sulayman Dunya, Dar al Ma'arif , Cairo, 1388 (1968.)
Ibn Taymiya, Abu al Abbas Taqiyuddin Ahmad Ibn Abd al
Halim, Minhaj al Sunna al Nabawiya , edited by Dr. Rashad Salim, Imam
Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyad, AH 1406 (1986)
Jastrow, Robert, God And The Astronomers, Warner
Books, New York, 1978.
Hawking, Stephen, A Brief History of Time,
Hoyle, Fred, The Nature of the Universe, Mentor Books, New York, 1955.
Kirkpatrick, Larry D. and Wheeler, Gerald F. Physics, A
World View, New York, Saunders College Publishing, 1992.
Newton, Sir Isaac, Optics, Dover Publications
Inc. New York, 1952.
Pasture, J. A, Philosophical Reasoning, New York, 1961.
Taylor, John, When the Clock Struck Zero: Science's
Ultimate Limits, Picador, London, 1993
Footnotes:
[1] “…the first
published avowal of speculative atheism appeared in 1770 on the Continent, and
in 1782 in Britain.” (Russell, Atheism. 3).
“The most recent Gallop data indicate that 96 per cent
of Americans say they believe in God... “ , (Carter, Culture, 278). The percentage
must surely be greater in the non Western world.
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